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Neizvršenje ugovora, odgovornost i naknada štete

Apstrakt

Prior determination of the sources governing contractual interactions was essential for the research on various conceptualizations of contract non-performance, contractual liability, and compensation of damages. Given that contract is the primary source of rules governing contractual relations, principles of autonomy of will and contractual freedom were studied, as well as their limitations. In addition to examining national and international sources that can govern mutual rights and obligations in accordance with modern methods of concluding contracts, emphasis was placed on contract forms and templates, adhesion contracts, standardized agreements and their general terms and conditions of contracts (in business, travel, insurance, etc.). The role of a custom and customary law in contract law is emphasized, as well as the importance of understanding the evolution of principles in European and comparative contract law, doctrine and judicial and arbitral practices.

Before delving into and discussing many types of contract non-performance, it was critical to grasp the contractual obligations which can trigger certain legal consequences and the option of applying specific legal remedies. Legal effects as well as the principle of the contract’s binding force were examined in order to provide theoretical and historical explanations to the question of why contracts are binding. The analysis of the legal nature of contractual obligations commences with Roman law, which is then followed by an exploration of the theories of promise, reliance and transfer. The final component of this section delves into the prevalent idea and justification for the binding effect of contracts, which is represented succinctly as pacta sunt servanda.

The investigation into contract non-performance commences by conducting a comparative analysis of various approaches to defining the notion of contract non-performance. This encompasses an examination of the concept based on legally prescribed forms of non-performance, as well as the comprehensive concept of contract non-performance. The latter is subjected to further scrutiny through a thorough evaluation of the two systems: one that links the concept of contract non-performance to contractual liability, and another that determines contract non-performance by emphasizing legal remedies and the prerequisites for their implementation. Particular emphasis is placed on contract non-performance within the framework of Serbian positive law This section emphasizes the practical importance of defining various types of contract non-performance. It then proceeds to specifically examine the delay in the performance of a contractual obligation, the impossibility of performance and the liability for material and legal flaws in performing a contractual obligation.

The focus of the investigation of contractual liability is exploring the grounds of contractual liability in comparative law, with distinct consideration of the two systems: subjective and objective contractual liability. For the sake of reader comprehension, the study of subjective liability is offered in both Germanic and Roman systems. Such investigation comes before delving into the basis of contractual obligation under Serbian law. The exploration of contractual liability limitations and exclusions follows as well as limitations of such possibilities. The analysis continues by exploring contractual and statutory justifications for excluding and restricting contractual obligations. Subsequently, an evaluation is conducted to ascertain legal significance of exculpatory provisions. This segment delves into the present state and advancements in the utilization of these clauses by business practitioners engaged in commercial and international trade activities. Specifically, it concentrates on the regulations and repercussions that apply to such provisions in consumer contract law, particularly when they are formulated in a manner that renders them unjust contractual terms.

The examination of contractual damages is organized into four distinct sections. It begins by examining the purpose of damages, with a particular emphasis on three aspects: compensating the creditor for losses incurred as a result of the failure to achieve expected benefits from contract performance, compensating the creditor for losses incurred due to reliance on a validly executed contract and the belief that it would be fulfilled as agreed, and providing restitution to the creditor by requiring the party in breach of the contract to return what they received as performance under the contract. Furthermore, it addresses the protection of the creditor’s interest in demanding specific performance of the contract and the preventive role of damages. Alongside the legal treatment of the concept of damages and the requirements for asserting the right to damages, significant attention is devoted to conducting thorough research on quantifying damages and establishing proofs of contractual damages. This includes references to legal sources, theoretical and comparative studies, and relevant case law.

In a claim for damages, the creditor seeks compensation from the debtor for losses incurred as a result of non-performance or improper execution of a contract. The primary objective of this legal recourse is to restore creditor’s financial position to a state as if the debtor had fulfilled the contract properly. Typically, the creditor can achieve this by receiving a suitable monetary sum, but he/she must provide evidence of both the occurrence and extent of the damage. However, there may be instances where the creditor is unable to precisely prove the exact amount of the incurred damage, or it may be excessively challenging or costly to do so. In such cases, the creditor may only claim the costs incurred, relying on the expectation that the contract will eventually be fulfilled. The creditor has the right to determine how to formulate the claim for damages. Nevertheless, as a rule, they cannot simultaneously accumulate multiple claims to obtain a larger compensation because damages are not punitive. They do not serve as a penalty imposed on the debtor for breaching the contract; rather, they are intended to be equivalent to the actual harm and lost profits suffered. In situations where compensating for damages solely through the payment of a corresponding sum of money may not adequately remedy the deficiencies in contract execution, the creditor may seek compensation through the specific performance of the contract in kind.

Two fundamental inquiries arise when discussing compensation for damages: which types of damages are eligible for compensation, and how should the value of these damages be quantified in monetary terms? In the realm of comparative law, it is widely accepted that contractual damages are pecuniary, encompassing both actual harm and lost profits. However, there remains a lack of consensus regarding the entitlement of the injured party to receive compensation for non-pecuniary contractual damages, although arguments in favour of such compensation are gaining traction. Determining the amount of compensation necessitates the utilization of an appropriate calculation method to assess the damages. In principle, damages can be evaluated by considering the specific costs incurred by the injured party as a result of the breach of contract, which is referred to as a specific calculation of damages. However, due to the arduous task of proving damages for the injured party, comparative law has established two distinct so-called privileged methods for calculating the amount of compensation. These methods are applicable only when the creditor has terminated the contract breached by the debtor, who bears responsibility for the breach. The first method involves compensating the injured party based on the difference in market prices between the value of the contractual performance at the time the contract was concluded and its value at the time of non-performance. The second method entails compensating the injured party based on the difference between the agreed price of the terminated contract and the price from a cover contract, provided that this difference is detrimental to the injured party. It is important to note that compensation awarded through these methods represents the minimum amount for damages claim, and the creditor retains the right to pursue additional damages under the general rules for compensation until achieving full restitution.

The law of damages is governed by the principle of full compensation although comparative analysis reveals that all legal systems deviate from the principle of integral compensation. Different techniques are employed to implement these limitations, with the most common approach being to consider only the damages that the debtor could have foreseen as a possible consequence of the contract breach at the time the contract was concluded. Furthermore, the extent to which the creditor contributed to the occurrence or increase of the damages through their behaviour is often taken into account. Limiting damages to the foreseeable amount is necessary to ensure that the liability of the contractual debtor aligns with the objective and fair measure. This is because the causal link between the contract breach and damages, which is a necessary condition for the right to compensation for both contractual and non-contractual damages, can be relatively easily established in contractual damages. However, the challenge lies in assessing the amount of contractual damages, as not all damages that occur after the contract breach are always part of the ordinary course of events. They are often influenced by specific circumstances of the individual creditor and the case. Therefore, contractual damages are generally less than the loss for which the debtor is responsible, applying the theory of adequate causation prevalent in many continental legal systems or based on the division of damages into direct and indirect damages in common law systems. The solution to this problem is provided by the foreseeability rule, which ultimately determines the point at which the chain of causes and effects initiated by the contract breach stops. The monograph thoroughly analyses the relationship between causation and foreseeability as two criteria that limit the contractual liability of the debtor, intertwining and defining the final amount of damages. The calculation of contractual damages is also influenced by the behaviour of the creditor, such as whether they contributed to the damages or failed to take reasonable measures to prevent or minimize the damages. Hence, actions of the creditor also intersect with causation by disrupting the sequence of events between the breach of contract and the resulting damages in cases where the creditor played a role in causing the damages or neglected to take appropriate steps to prevent or reduce them. The monograph explicitly differentiates how each of these scenarios impacts the assessment of damages.

Uvod u fudbalsko pravo 1

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Sloboda medija i pravo na informisanost

Preuzmite publikaciju

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Postupak rešavanja sporova pred međunarodnim trgovinskim arbitražama

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Based on trust and practiced since Antiquity, arbitration is one of the oldest approaches to dispute resolution. Initially, it was used to resolve issues between states but, over time, it was employed to settle disputes between natural persons as well. In the ancient Athenian state, arbitration was included in Solon’s reforms while, later, Aristotle wrote about the distinction between a judge and an arbiter. Some of his insights hold true to this day, such as his observation of the essential role trust plays in arbitration. It is trust in the arbiters they have chosen that permits the disputing parties to transfer their rights pertaining to said dispute to the arbiters, who then – acting as private persons in a special (arbitral) process – render a decision that resolves the dispute based on what is fair. Eventually, arbitration evolved from a wise method of mediation and reconciliation into an authoritative, institutionalized mechanism for solving a wide array of disputes, including complex, high-value cases – which entailed defining procedural rules based on conscientiousness and honesty. With the development of cross-border commerce, however – and despite arbitration’s universal applicability as a special and readily-accepted means of resolving commercial disputes – the relevant rules of lex arbitri have never been fully harmonized or unified. Efforts to create uniform procedural rules have not progressed beyond projects defining the principles of the arbitration process.

The reason for this lack of procedural harmonization and consolidation should foremost be sought in the essentially private nature of arbitration and in the differences in how it is conceptualized by national legislations. This monograph has, therefore, endeavored to systematize existing national solutions and practical knowledge and experience in one significant legal area – international commercial arbitration proceedings – which, thus far, has not been comprehensively analyzed in Serbian-language professional literature. Specifically, the book aims to determine and define the guiding principles for applying arbitration effectively, given that – as will be repeatedly emphasized – arbitral proceedings constitute the ‘heart’ of arbitration. To accomplish this, it is first necessary to thoroughly define what arbitration proceedings entail.

This work assumes the widely-accepted explication that arbitration proceedings comprise a system of legal procedures and actions undertaken by the arbitration court and other involved participants pertaining to the resolution of the arbitrated dispute as regulated by the rules of arbitral procedural law. The objective of the arbitration proceedings is to enable the arbitration process between the primary and secondary participants in a dispute. The primary actors are the disputing parties and arbiters, while secondary relations are forged between the arbitration court and a variety of third parties. According to the arbitration agreement – which is the basis for initiating arbitration – the default disputing parties in the arbitration proceedings are the agreement’s signatories. In two-party arbitration, said parties comprise the claimant and respondent. In cases of complex, multiparty arbitration, however, the proceedings include not only the agreement signatories but also third parties through intervention or joinder, whereby one side in the proceedings comprises multiple subjects. Thus, particular care has been taken to differentiate between complex and classic arbitration and to discuss the fundamental question of whether an arbitration agreement, as an expression of accord between its signatories, can legally compel third parties to participate in the arbitration process?

In material terms, arbitration proceedings entail procedural and legal actions taken by the arbiters, who are organized into an arbitral court, toward realizing the subjective rights of all the parties involved in the dispute. As a process, arbitration has a beginning, duration and end, the latter of which coincides with the passing of the arbitral decision.

Applicable law plays an important role not only in the assessment of the merit of a dispute and its lex contractus but also in how the arbitration proceedings will unfold and conclude. In practice, the outcome of a dispute may depend on both where the proceedings are taking place and what applicable law was stated in the arbitration agreement. The implication is that business subjects should not elect the seat of arbitral proceedings lightly or “by default” but rather with a consideration of their own best interests.

In terms of content, arbitration proceedings – not unlike court proceedings – serve to allow the disputing parties to present their positions, based on which the arbiters will draw their own conclusions and reach a decision on the dispute. It is understood that the arbitrators shall conduct a fair and legal process while abiding by the numerous rules and principles which govern arbitration. This monograph takes a closer look at four core principles: party autonomy, the right to be heard, equal treatment and the principle of contradiction.

According to the principle of party autonomy, the disputing parties are free to choose whether, when and how they will initiate an arbitral process and to determine the rules of such proceedings. During the proceedings, the arbitrators employ argumentative and investigative principles to resolve the dispute. They are also obliged to provide each party with the opportunity to comment on the demands of the other, as well as on the information provided by witnesses and experts – i. e. to honor the principles of equality and the right to be heard. Two other arbitral principles touched upon in this monograph are confidentiality and expediency. The former sets arbitration apart from court proceedings. The latter allows arbiters to conflate multiple disputes between the same parties into one arbitral process. Both principles are part of the overarching tenet of due process in arbitration.

Significant attention has also been given to the operationalization of arbitration agreements. An arbitration agreement is operationalized and transmuted into arbitral proceedings through the formation of an arbitral tribunal, which is initiated once a claim or request for arbitration has been filed. Since the disputing parties often cannot agree in their choice of arbiters, the formation of arbitral tribunals represents the ‘Achilles heel’ of the entire arbitration process and frequently necessitates the assistance of an appointing body.

In the selection of arbiters, the disputing parties or appointing bodies must ensure that their nominees are both objective and independent. In contemporary arbitral law, an arbiter’s citizenship is not considered a limitation to his or her eligibility.

With regards to their temporal aspect, arbitration proceedings are herein discussed as the period between the commencement and conclusion of the arbitral process, during which all the actors involved can take action influencing the arbitration. Said actions may result in the passing of a final award but may also hinder or permanently stop the proceedings.

The first step involved in the complex and cumulative process of arbitration is the filing of a Notice of Arbitration or Statement of Claim, which is followed by the formation of an arbitral court (tribunal). The final step in the arbitration process is the passing of the arbitral decision. Once a dispute arises, arbitration proceedings must be launched in a timely manner, in keeping with legal or agreed upon preclusion and limitation deadlines.

The process itself must unfold according to the Terms of Reference. The filing of a claim and commencement of arbitration proceedings yield both material and procedural consequences. The latter entail the formation of a special procedural relationship between the claimant and the arbitral court. Within this relationship, all parties assume rights and responsibilities which grant the arbiters the authority to resolve the dispute. The material consequences pertain to the fact that the filing of a claim halts the progression of the limitations period, the preclusion period, and the calculation of arrears in cases where no fulfillment deadline was set, while, at the same time, the calculation of default interest etc. commences. Throughout the proceedings, the arbitral tribunal is obligated to ensure its actions focus solely on the issue(s) it was called upon to resolve. The disputing parties may draw attention to instances of the arbitral court acting ultra vires as long as this is done within the timeframe prescribed for objections. Otherwise, the award passed by the arbitral tribunal may be overturned by a national court.

An arbitrator’s mandate expires once an arbitral decision has been reached, either resolving the dispute or ordering the discontinuance of the proceedings. In addition to the circumstances warranting discontinuance, arbitration proceedings may also be terminated if the disputing parties have reached a settlement.

Once it has been passed, the arbitral decision applies to all the participants of the arbitration proceedings. It is final and cannot be appealed. The decision becomes binding for the disputing parties from the moment it has been served and, with regards to the issues it addresses, it is considered res judicata – equivalent to a legally binding ruling made by a state court.

The recent evolution of arbitration into the dominant mechanism for resolving commercial disputes indicates that the subject of arbitration bears investigation. Based on an in-depth analysis of arbitration proceedings, it can be concluded that the disputing parties’ will and choice of applicable law can significantly impact the outcome of the arbitral process. Given the lack of cohesive rules regulating arbitration proceedings, this monograph has attempted to collect and appropriately analyze the relevant existing rules employed by arbitral institutions as well as the recommended rules for ad hoc arbitration.

Legal mechanisms for prevention of corruption in Southeast Europe

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A new publication Legal Mechanisms for Prevention of Corruption in Southeast Europe with Special Focus on the Defence Sector edited by Dr Aleksandra Rabrenovic is released in 2013. This comparative-legal study analyses six checks and balances set in place to prevent corruption (parliamentary oversight; specialized anti-corruption bodies; arrangements for handling conflicts of interests; arrangements for transparency/freedom of access to information; arrangements for internal and external audit; ombudsman institution) and three areas that pose significant corruption/misuse risks (public procurement and disposal of defence assets; human resources management; control of intelligence agencies), with a special focus on the defence sector. The preparation and publishing of the publication was supported by generous financial assistance of the Government of Norway.

Krivična dela visokotehnološkog kriminala

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Prikaz

Knjiga „Krivična dela visokotehnološkog kriminala” sistematizovano objedinjava znanja iz oblasti visokotehnološkog kriminala. Pored praktičnih krivično pravnih aspekata ona ima i kriminalistički značaj s obzirom da je objašnjen značajan broj kriminalističkih i tehničkih metoda postupanja u cilju brzog, efikasnog i efektivnog postupanja organa gonjenja u svrhu rasvetljavanja krivičnih dela visokotehnološkog kriminala. Autori u knjizi govore o krivičnim delima vezanim za pornografiju, pedofiliju, krivičnim delima protiv intelektualne svojine, krivičnim delima protiv imovine kao što je prevara, krivičnim delima protiv privrede, falsifikovanju platnih kartica, krađi identiteta,. U knjizi se analiziraju i krivična dela protiv opšte sigurnosti ljudi i imovine, krivična dela protiv bezbednosti računarskih podataka, protiv ustavnog uređenja, krivičnim delima protiv čovečnosti i drugih dobara zaštićenih međunarodnim pravom, pre svega kad se radi o rasnoj ili drugoj diskriminaciji. Knjiga je pre svega namenjena pravnicima ali svakako može biti korisna i informatičarima i svima koji žele da prošire svoja znanja iz oblasti visokotehnološkog kriminala.

Osnovi zaštite podataka o ličnosti

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Paralelno sa rastom prikupljenih podataka o svakom pojedincu, drastično porasla i opasnost od zloupotrebe ovih podataka, kako od strane pojedinaca, tako i od strane kompanija i državnih institucija. Slobodan protok informacija je nužnost, ali i velika opasnost za privatnost, nezavisnost i individualnost svakog pojedinca. Stavljanje podataka u središte razvoja industrije i upravljanja društvima zahteva podizanje na visok nivo kako sistema informacione bezbednosti, tako i sistema zaštite fundamentalnih prava građana. Pored tehničkih i informatičkih aspekata bezbednosti prikupljenih podataka izuzetno je važno stvaranje kompleksnog i delotvornog pravnog sistema zaštite podataka o ličnosti. Knjiga ” Osnovi prava zaštite podataka o ličnosti” predstavlja doprinos sagledavanju različitih aspekata tog složenog pravnog sistema zaštite podataka o ličnosti. U knjizi su objašnjeni i definisani podaci i njihove vrste, potom je objašnjen pojam pravne zaštite podataka njegov istorijski razvoj, na kojim se načelima zasniva i kakva su prava za građane proistekla razvijanjem sistema zaštite podataka. Poseban deo knjige posvećen je predstavljanju i analizi propisa koji na međunarodnom i nacionalnom planu regulišu oblast zaštite podataka o ličnosti. Poslednje poglavlje knjige posvećeno je praksi zaštite pojedinaca od zloupotrebe podataka o ličnosti prikazivanjem i analizom jednog broja slučajeva koji su procesuirani pred Evropskim sudom za ljudska prava, Sudom pravde Evropske unije i nacionalnim nezavisnim organima koji u svojoj nadležnosti imaju zaštitu podataka.

Digitalna forenzika

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Knjiga „Digitalna forenzika” pruža prikaz stanja oblasti digitalne forenzike, pojašnjava metode i tehnike digitalne forenzike računarskih sistema koji otkrivaju ovakvu vrstu kriminala i preventivno deluju kao vid zaštite računarskih sistema. Analizom računarskih sistema se pokazuje stanje sistema, tj. koliko je sistem ranjiv posle njegove instalacije na računaru. Na taj način se detektuju ranjivosti u sistemu, dobijaju se preporuke za prevazilaženje ovih bezbedonosnih problema, čime se preventivno deluje protiv mogućeg forenzičkog relevantnog događaja. Tako da se ovo sveobuhvatno istraživanje može posmatrati i kao jedna proaktivna digitalna forenzika u smislu spremnog dočekivanja, ali i otkrivanja forenzički relevantnog događaja. Digitalni podaci generisani ili uneti u računar ostavljaju brojne tragove u operativnim sistemima. Pretraga za podacima podrazumeva priključivanje forenzičkog alata, što znači ostavljanje tragova na digitalne podatke (Lokardov zakon). Izbrisani podaci ostavljaju tragove u nealociranim i slek prostorima diska, a odsustvo podataka ukazuje na antiforenzičku aktivnost i predstavlja jaku osnovu za sumnju u nedozvoljene aktivnosti. Knjiga „Digitalna forenzika” može biti od koristi kako onima koji se bave pitanjima digitalne forenzike sa teorijskog aspekta, tako i onima koji se problemima digitalne forenzike suočavaju u praksi.

Internet pravo

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Stvaranje nove digitalne zajednice neprekidnim povećavanjem brojem korisnika interneta neumitno je uslovilo enormni rast digitalnih informacija u svim oblicima. Ova pojava uzdrmala je tradicionalne koncepte u gotovo svim oblastima života i rada i nametnula je potrebu traženja novih rešenja. Neke od tih oblasti svakako su i oblasti intelektualne svojine, autorskih prava, zaštite podataka i privatnosti, elektronskog poslovanja i visokotehnološkog kriminala. U knjizi se govori o licencama kreativne zajednice koje danas prihvata ogroman broj autora i institucija u najvećem broju zemalja sveta. Ove licence su pravi primer dobrih rešenja u oblasti ostvarivanja sloboda i prava u digitalnoj zajednici. Podaci o ličnosti, tako i podaci koji se odnose na funkcionisanje pravnih lica ili državnih organa i institucija treba da budu na određeni način zaštićeni. Zaštita podrazumeva dvostruku aktivnost: sa jedne strane, ne smeju se učiniti javnim podaci koji nisu kao takvi određeni propisima; sa druge strane, to je problem obezbeđivanja integriteta računara i računarskih sistema u kojima se nalaze podaci koji su postavljeni na internet u nekom restriktivnom obliku (za strogo određeni broj korisnika koji imaju interes da u njih imaju uvid i sa njima dalje raspolažu). Pored regulisanjem zaštite privatnosti i podataka neophodno je posebnu pažnju dati području bezbednosti računarskih sistema i računarskih mreža, odnosno bezbednosti svih korisnika računara koji pristupaju sajber prostoru. U knjizi su analizirana pitanja poslovanja na internetu, sklapanja elektronskih ugovora definisanja procesnih pravila pri sklapanju elektronskih ugovora. Mnogobrojne zloupotrebe elektronskih podataka, lažno predstavljanje na internetu, elektronske prevare, elektronske sabotaže, unošenje virusa u računarske sisteme,neovlašćeno menjanje elektronskih podataka, linkovanje bez prethodne dozvole, i mnoge druge nedozvoljene radnje prilikom elektronske trgovine takođe su predmet knjige „Internet pravo”.

Fejsbuk, zaštita podataka i sudska praksa

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Najviše pravnih problema na Fejsbuku vezano je za pravo privatnosti, zaštitu podataka kao i mogućnost ostvarivanja prava na pravnu zaštitu. Ova pitanja regulisana su propisima EU i to pre svega Direktivom o zaštiti podataka (Directive 95/46/EC), Direktivom o privatnosti i elektronskim komunikacijama (Directive 2002/58/EC), Direktivom kojom se menja Direktiva o privatnosti i elektronskim komunikacijama (Directive 2006/24/EC), Direktivom kojom se takođe menja Direktiva o privatnosti i elektronskim komunikacijama (Directive 2009/136/EC), i Telekom paket Direktivom (Directive 2009/140/EC). Kao što se može primetiti, jedna od najvažijih direktiva je doneta još 1995. godine. I pored toga ova direktiva je ostala kamen temeljac u razvitku daljih pravnih propisa EU u oblasti zaštite podataka i prava privatnosti, pre svega zato što je dugogodišnja sudska praksa bazirana na ovoj direktivi. Ostale direktive predstavljaju nadogradnju kako bi se omogućila u primena ovih direktiva u oblasti elektronskih komunikacija. Direktiva iz 1995. godine poslužila je kao baza za novu Opštu uredbu o zaštiti podataka (Regulation 2016/679), koja počinje da se primenjuje 25.5.2018. godine. Niz primera iz prakse i sudskih presuda nastalih kao posledica korišćenja Fejsbuka, koji su navedeni u ovoj knjizi ” Fejsbuk, zaštita podataka i sudska praksa” treba da predstavljaju ozbiljno upozorenje svim korisnicima ove društvene mreže sa ciljem da budu znatno oprezniji pri korišćenju ove društvene mreže, odnosno da budu svesni kakve sve posledice mogu izazvati njihove aktivnosti na Fejsbuku.

Pravo zaštite podataka

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Uporedo sa razvojem teorija o shvatanju privatnosti i zaštitom prava privatnosti pred sudovima u Evropi se od sedamdesetih godina dvadesetog veka pa sve do danas razvijala pravna regulativa koja reguliše pitanje zaštite podataka i stvara kompleksan sistem zaštite podataka. U početku su to bili zakonski propisi pojedinih evropskih zemalja, a potom je glavnu ulogu u stvaranju sistema zaštite podataka preuzela Evropska Unija. Od velikog broja propisa koji su doneti u okviru Evropske unije treba izdvojiti pre svega Direktivu o zaštiti podataka (Directive 95/46/EC), Direktivu o privatnosti i elektronskim komunikacijama (Directive 2002/58/EC), Direktivu kojom se menja Direktiva o privatnosti i elektronskim komunikacijama (Directive 2006/24/EC), Direktivu kojom se takođe menja Direktiva o privatnosti i elektronskim komunikacijama (Directive 2009/136/EC), i Telekom paket Direktivu (Directive 2009/140/EC). Stupanjem na snagu Lisabonskog sporazuma 2009. godine pravnu obaveznost i isti pravni značaj kao i osnivački ugovori stekla je Povelja Evropske unije o osnovnim pravima usvojena 2000. godine i izmenjena 2007. godine koja članom 8. definiše pravo na zaštitu podataka. EU je 2016. g. donela Opšte uredbu o zaštiti podataka (Regulation 2016/679), koja je počela da se primenjuje 25.5.2018. godine, koja je imala globalne efekti i mogućnost primene u svim zemljama širom sveta. Zbog ovog pravnog propisa promenili su svoje ponašanje i način funkcionisanje milioni privatnih kompanija među kojima i one najveće, poput Gogla ili Fejsbuka, veliki broj država širom sveta menja svoja nacionalna zakonodavstva i način prikupljanja obrade i čuvanja podataka, a građani dobijaju bolju zaštitu i nova prava, koja sada mogu i da ostvare.